The manakin family: Pipridae
Coming soon: Updated Manakin Phylogeny
To put our knowledge of manakin biology into an evolutionary context, we are estimating evolutionary relationships in the Pipridae (Leite et al. in prep). Our dataset includes almost all manakin species (except Neopelma aurifrons and the newly described species Machaeropterus eckelberryi), and is based on over 2000 genes scattered throughout the genome (primarily ultraconserved element loci, but also includes some regions sampled in other avian studies). This will allow us to understand how species within genera are related to each other, how the different genera are related, and to estimate the timing of divergences among species and genera. Such information is a vital first step in understanding the factors that may have led to the unique diversity in behavior, morphology, and physiology among the manakins.
Authors: Rafael N. Leite, Rebecca T. Kimball, Edward L. Braun, Elizabeth P. Derryberry, Peter A. Hosner, Graham E. Derryberry, Marina Anciães, Jessica McKay, Diogo Meyer, Alexandre Aleixo, Camila C. Ribas, Robb T. Brumfield, Joel Cracraft
To put our knowledge of manakin biology into an evolutionary context, we are estimating evolutionary relationships in the Pipridae (Leite et al. in prep). Our dataset includes almost all manakin species (except Neopelma aurifrons and the newly described species Machaeropterus eckelberryi), and is based on over 2000 genes scattered throughout the genome (primarily ultraconserved element loci, but also includes some regions sampled in other avian studies). This will allow us to understand how species within genera are related to each other, how the different genera are related, and to estimate the timing of divergences among species and genera. Such information is a vital first step in understanding the factors that may have led to the unique diversity in behavior, morphology, and physiology among the manakins.
Authors: Rafael N. Leite, Rebecca T. Kimball, Edward L. Braun, Elizabeth P. Derryberry, Peter A. Hosner, Graham E. Derryberry, Marina Anciães, Jessica McKay, Diogo Meyer, Alexandre Aleixo, Camila C. Ribas, Robb T. Brumfield, Joel Cracraft
Genus: Neopelma
Study Species: Saffron-crested tyrant-manakin (Neopelma chrysocephalum)
Who: Camilo Alfonso
Field site: Allpahuayo-Mishana National Park, Iquitos, Peru
Lab site: University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Study System: The saffron-crested tyrant-manakin is a species that looks like a flycatcher (Tyrannidae), with olive green back and wings, and a yellowish breast. The gaudiest part of its plumage is an intense orange crown that looks almost red, which gives this species its common name. They are only found in the white sand ecosystems of the Amazon rainforest, also known as Amazon caatingas. Unlike most other manakin species, saffron-crested tyrant-manakins eat mostly insects and supplement their diet with some fruits. This species presents an exploded lek system so displaying males are only in auditory, not visual, contact.
Research: As part of his undergraduate thesis, Camilo Alfonso studied male-male interactions in a lek of this species. His results show that males are aggressive toward other males but seem to recognize neighbor males by their song (members of their own lek) and are aggressive to intrusive stranger males.
Who: Camilo Alfonso
Field site: Allpahuayo-Mishana National Park, Iquitos, Peru
Lab site: University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Study System: The saffron-crested tyrant-manakin is a species that looks like a flycatcher (Tyrannidae), with olive green back and wings, and a yellowish breast. The gaudiest part of its plumage is an intense orange crown that looks almost red, which gives this species its common name. They are only found in the white sand ecosystems of the Amazon rainforest, also known as Amazon caatingas. Unlike most other manakin species, saffron-crested tyrant-manakins eat mostly insects and supplement their diet with some fruits. This species presents an exploded lek system so displaying males are only in auditory, not visual, contact.
Research: As part of his undergraduate thesis, Camilo Alfonso studied male-male interactions in a lek of this species. His results show that males are aggressive toward other males but seem to recognize neighbor males by their song (members of their own lek) and are aggressive to intrusive stranger males.
Fun Facts
1) Saffron-crested tyrant-manakins hide their beautiful crown most of the time and open it only during the display dance.
2) The song of this species resembles an insect noise. Because of its throaty song, people misidentify it as a cricket or a little frog.
3) Males seem to recognize neighbors at the lek and are aggressive to unfamiliar males, so the opportunity for a new male to join a lek could be very competitive.
2) The song of this species resembles an insect noise. Because of its throaty song, people misidentify it as a cricket or a little frog.
3) Males seem to recognize neighbors at the lek and are aggressive to unfamiliar males, so the opportunity for a new male to join a lek could be very competitive.
Genus: Corapipo
Study Species: White-throated manakin (Corapipo gutturalis)
Who: Dr. Marina Anciães, Mariana Tolentino
Field Site: Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) Km 41 reserve, Manaus, Brazil
Lab Site: National Institute of Amazon Researches, Manaus, Brazil
Study system: White-throated manakins live in the understory of tropical rainforests from the Guiana Shield. This species has a dispersed lek mating system and males perform displays on mossy fallen logs on the forest floor. Their leks are comprised of five to eight males present in arenas.
Research: Dr. Marina Anciães studied the white-throated manakin in BDFFP as part of her PhD. Currently, students from her lab are working on masters and PhD projects with the population from BDFFP. Projects address questions about social networks, male ascension, individual variations in male displays, female choice, and home-range.
Who: Dr. Marina Anciães, Mariana Tolentino
Field Site: Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) Km 41 reserve, Manaus, Brazil
Lab Site: National Institute of Amazon Researches, Manaus, Brazil
Study system: White-throated manakins live in the understory of tropical rainforests from the Guiana Shield. This species has a dispersed lek mating system and males perform displays on mossy fallen logs on the forest floor. Their leks are comprised of five to eight males present in arenas.
Research: Dr. Marina Anciães studied the white-throated manakin in BDFFP as part of her PhD. Currently, students from her lab are working on masters and PhD projects with the population from BDFFP. Projects address questions about social networks, male ascension, individual variations in male displays, female choice, and home-range.
Fun Facts
1) The males remove all leaves and other things that fall on the display logs.
2) Males "dive" from the canopy to the logs and on arrival emit a mechanical sound like a "pop".
3) The fallen logs used for display must have a "green carpet" of moss.
2) Males "dive" from the canopy to the logs and on arrival emit a mechanical sound like a "pop".
3) The fallen logs used for display must have a "green carpet" of moss.
Study Species: White-ruffed manakin (Corapipo altera)
Researchers: Dr. Alice Boyle, Dr. Megan Jones, Elsie Shogren
Field sites: Rara Avis Reserve, Braulio Carillo National Park, La Selva elevational gradient, Volcan Tenorio National Park, and multiple other study sites distributed across both Pacific and Caribbean slopes of Costa Rica
Lab sites: Kansas State University, KS, USA and Florida State University, FL, USA
Study system: White-ruffed manakins breed in wet to incredibly wet forests at middle elevations of mountains, mainly in Central America. Their displays are mainly silent, and these birds can be surprisingly hard to see, even where they are common. Males display in the forest understory; they land on their display logs, puff out their bright white “ruffs”, flick their wings, then do upright bobbing flights known as “butterfly flights” to and from the logs. Females travel widely between display logs of different males, at first observing inconspicuously from nearby vegetation, then landing on the logs of males who impress them. The culmination of male displays involves a flight to well above the canopy where they circle and make high calls. They dive a high speed down to their log, make 3 distinct sounds (we don’t know how they make those yet!), then do a cartwheel over the female if she is there. Like many other montane-breeding species, some individuals migrate annually down to lower elevations during the non-breeding season. The birds that migrate pay a reproductive cost by losing social status and being less attractive to females during the next breeding season.
Research: Dr. Alice Boyle began studying the migration of this species as a PhD student to determine the causes of their migrations. Those results implicated weather—specifically heavy rainfall during the non-breeding season—as the driver of those migrations. Birds have lots of food to eat, but may not have enough rain-free hours in the day to forage to meet their energy needs during the heavy storms that hit the Caribbean slope during the wet season. Megan Jones’ PhD tested hypotheses to explain another intriguing aspect of this species’ biology; some males cooperate and others display alone. As part of this work, we documented how incredibly variable all aspect of this species’ reproductive behavior and social dynamics are, relative to other well-studied manakin species. Elsie Shogren’s PhD research builds on both of these sets of findings. She is testing the idea that precipitation regime constrains manakin life history and the potential for sexual selection. By comparing the behavior, social interactions, and genetic diversity of populations experiencing different amounts of rainfall, she is exploring how natural selection and sexual selection interact to drive evolution in white-ruffed manakins.
Researchers: Dr. Alice Boyle, Dr. Megan Jones, Elsie Shogren
Field sites: Rara Avis Reserve, Braulio Carillo National Park, La Selva elevational gradient, Volcan Tenorio National Park, and multiple other study sites distributed across both Pacific and Caribbean slopes of Costa Rica
Lab sites: Kansas State University, KS, USA and Florida State University, FL, USA
Study system: White-ruffed manakins breed in wet to incredibly wet forests at middle elevations of mountains, mainly in Central America. Their displays are mainly silent, and these birds can be surprisingly hard to see, even where they are common. Males display in the forest understory; they land on their display logs, puff out their bright white “ruffs”, flick their wings, then do upright bobbing flights known as “butterfly flights” to and from the logs. Females travel widely between display logs of different males, at first observing inconspicuously from nearby vegetation, then landing on the logs of males who impress them. The culmination of male displays involves a flight to well above the canopy where they circle and make high calls. They dive a high speed down to their log, make 3 distinct sounds (we don’t know how they make those yet!), then do a cartwheel over the female if she is there. Like many other montane-breeding species, some individuals migrate annually down to lower elevations during the non-breeding season. The birds that migrate pay a reproductive cost by losing social status and being less attractive to females during the next breeding season.
Research: Dr. Alice Boyle began studying the migration of this species as a PhD student to determine the causes of their migrations. Those results implicated weather—specifically heavy rainfall during the non-breeding season—as the driver of those migrations. Birds have lots of food to eat, but may not have enough rain-free hours in the day to forage to meet their energy needs during the heavy storms that hit the Caribbean slope during the wet season. Megan Jones’ PhD tested hypotheses to explain another intriguing aspect of this species’ biology; some males cooperate and others display alone. As part of this work, we documented how incredibly variable all aspect of this species’ reproductive behavior and social dynamics are, relative to other well-studied manakin species. Elsie Shogren’s PhD research builds on both of these sets of findings. She is testing the idea that precipitation regime constrains manakin life history and the potential for sexual selection. By comparing the behavior, social interactions, and genetic diversity of populations experiencing different amounts of rainfall, she is exploring how natural selection and sexual selection interact to drive evolution in white-ruffed manakins.
Fun Facts
1) Most of the male’s display occurs on and around a mossy log in the forest understory, but the climax involves him flying high above the canopy and diving down to his log at high speed.
2) Most manakins either defend their own display court or partner with another male to display cooperatively; White-ruffs do both! Some cooperate and others are loners.
3) These little manakins (only weighing 10 g) eat their body mass in fruit in 1.5 hours.
4) In some populations of this species, many individuals migrate altitudinally to lower elevations during the non-breeding season.
2) Most manakins either defend their own display court or partner with another male to display cooperatively; White-ruffs do both! Some cooperate and others are loners.
3) These little manakins (only weighing 10 g) eat their body mass in fruit in 1.5 hours.
4) In some populations of this species, many individuals migrate altitudinally to lower elevations during the non-breeding season.
Genus: Chiroxiphia
Study Species: Swallow-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia caudata)
Who: Dr. Lilian Manica, Pedro Ribeiro, and Laura Schaedler
Field Site: Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi - Mananciais da Serra, Paraná, Brazil
Lab Site: Paraná Federal University, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
Study system: Swallow-tailed manakins are endemic to Atlantic Forest, a biome under strong deforestation pressure. Despite the threat of habitat loss, this bird is easily seen in the forest because males gather together to perform a frenzied dance for females. Groups of dancing males can be large, reaching up to seven individuals displaying at the same time.
Research: Dr. Lilian Manica and members of her lab have been studying swallow-tailed manakins since 2014 Their main focus is to understand the mechanisms underlying displays and how they influence female choice and male-male social interactions. To do so, they focus on an array of signals, such as vocalizations, motor exhibitions, and plumage coloration.
Who: Dr. Lilian Manica, Pedro Ribeiro, and Laura Schaedler
Field Site: Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi - Mananciais da Serra, Paraná, Brazil
Lab Site: Paraná Federal University, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
Study system: Swallow-tailed manakins are endemic to Atlantic Forest, a biome under strong deforestation pressure. Despite the threat of habitat loss, this bird is easily seen in the forest because males gather together to perform a frenzied dance for females. Groups of dancing males can be large, reaching up to seven individuals displaying at the same time.
Research: Dr. Lilian Manica and members of her lab have been studying swallow-tailed manakins since 2014 Their main focus is to understand the mechanisms underlying displays and how they influence female choice and male-male social interactions. To do so, they focus on an array of signals, such as vocalizations, motor exhibitions, and plumage coloration.
Fun Facts
1) Blue manakins displays can get really messy! Males often join and leave exhibitions in the middle of the performance, skipping turns and interrupting other males. How can females keep track of all this?
2) Mastering the art of displaying isn’t easy: males take years to produce sounds and dance moves coordinately! In the forest, it is common to see young males practicing alone and in groups to improve their abilities.
3) Females are extremely picky. The majority of displays do not end in copulation, even if they look perfect to the human eye!
2) Mastering the art of displaying isn’t easy: males take years to produce sounds and dance moves coordinately! In the forest, it is common to see young males practicing alone and in groups to improve their abilities.
3) Females are extremely picky. The majority of displays do not end in copulation, even if they look perfect to the human eye!
Study Species: Yungas manakin (Chiroxiphia boliviana)
Who: Dr. Mariana Villegas
Field Sites: Five locations in the Tropical Andes - Yungas montane forests, in North and South Yungas provinces, La Paz, Bolivia
Lab Site: University of Florida, Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Tropical Ecology and Conservation Lab, FL, USA.
Study system: Yungas manakins inhabit humid hill forests along the eastern slopes of the Andes of Bolivia and Peru. Chiroxiphia manakins exhibit obligate cooperative behaviors in which long-term bonds are formed between a dominant (alpha) and one or more subordinate (beta) males.
Research: For her dissertation, Dr. Mariana Villegas studied ecological differentiation patterns in the Yungas manakin at different levels and scales; she examined whether patterns of niche differentiation or similarity could be inferred at the species distribution level, she examined whether ecological selection has influenced variation of morphological and vocal characters along an elevational gradient, and she also tested whether the species migrates attitudinally.
Who: Dr. Mariana Villegas
Field Sites: Five locations in the Tropical Andes - Yungas montane forests, in North and South Yungas provinces, La Paz, Bolivia
Lab Site: University of Florida, Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Tropical Ecology and Conservation Lab, FL, USA.
Study system: Yungas manakins inhabit humid hill forests along the eastern slopes of the Andes of Bolivia and Peru. Chiroxiphia manakins exhibit obligate cooperative behaviors in which long-term bonds are formed between a dominant (alpha) and one or more subordinate (beta) males.
Research: For her dissertation, Dr. Mariana Villegas studied ecological differentiation patterns in the Yungas manakin at different levels and scales; she examined whether patterns of niche differentiation or similarity could be inferred at the species distribution level, she examined whether ecological selection has influenced variation of morphological and vocal characters along an elevational gradient, and she also tested whether the species migrates attitudinally.
Fun Facts
1) Yungas manakins occur at higher elevations than other members of the genus Chiroxiphia (up to 2600 masl).
2) Male Yungas manakins produce short pulses of noise with their wings during long and short-distance flights between perches; these wing sonations almost resemble a trill.
3) Like other Chiroxiphia manakins, male Yungas manakins leap over each other producing the “leapfrog” portion of the dance display.
2) Male Yungas manakins produce short pulses of noise with their wings during long and short-distance flights between perches; these wing sonations almost resemble a trill.
3) Like other Chiroxiphia manakins, male Yungas manakins leap over each other producing the “leapfrog” portion of the dance display.
Study Species: Lance-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia lanceolata)
Who: Dr. Emily DuVal, Dr. Blake Jones, Carla Vanderbilt, Pearl Rivers
Field Site: Isla Boca Brava, Chiriquí, Panama
Lab Site: Florida State University, FL, USA
Study system: Lance-tailed manakins are found in secondary growth forest and prefer dense, tangled vegetation. Males form partnerships that can last for up to six years. These partners perform cooperative dance displays for females, however only the alpha male copulates with receptive females.
Research: Dr. Emily DuVal has been studying the lance-tailed manakins on Isla Boca Brava since she started her PhD in 1999. Using the data from this population of lance-tailed manakins Dr. DuVal and lab members address questions about variation in female mate choice, lek mating systems, and male alliance formation.
Who: Dr. Emily DuVal, Dr. Blake Jones, Carla Vanderbilt, Pearl Rivers
Field Site: Isla Boca Brava, Chiriquí, Panama
Lab Site: Florida State University, FL, USA
Study system: Lance-tailed manakins are found in secondary growth forest and prefer dense, tangled vegetation. Males form partnerships that can last for up to six years. These partners perform cooperative dance displays for females, however only the alpha male copulates with receptive females.
Research: Dr. Emily DuVal has been studying the lance-tailed manakins on Isla Boca Brava since she started her PhD in 1999. Using the data from this population of lance-tailed manakins Dr. DuVal and lab members address questions about variation in female mate choice, lek mating systems, and male alliance formation.
Fun Facts
1) Lance-tailed manakins are named for the two pointy tail feathers that extend beyond the rest of the tail.
2) Males repeatedly leap over each other in the "leapfrog" portion of the dance display.
3) While most females have entirely green plumage, some older females grow red head feathers, similar to second year males.
2) Males repeatedly leap over each other in the "leapfrog" portion of the dance display.
3) While most females have entirely green plumage, some older females grow red head feathers, similar to second year males.
Genus: Antilophia
Study Species: Helmeted manakin (Antilophia galeata)
Who: Lia Nahomi Kajiki
Field Site: Fazenda Água Limpa, Brasília, DF, Brazil
Lab Site: University of Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
Study system: The helmeted manakin (Antilophia galeata) is a Neotropical bird endemic to the Cerrado biome in Central Brazil. It is the only dimorphic piprid species that inhabits a forest-like environment (gallery forests) surrounded by extensive savanna vegetation in the Cerrado biome, one of the most threatened biodiversity hotspots in the world. Contrary to most polygamous dichromatic manakins, this species apparently does not perform lekking courtship displays. Male ornamentation suggests it is under strong sexual selection favoring certain phenotypic characters. This would be a rare instance of loss of lekking behavior in the Pipridae family, and the species may represent a link between polygamous and monogamous mating systems.
Research: Lia is most interested in exploring questions regarding the social and genetic mating strategies (e.g., the influence of male sexual characters on female choice) of helmeted manakins during her PhD.
Who: Lia Nahomi Kajiki
Field Site: Fazenda Água Limpa, Brasília, DF, Brazil
Lab Site: University of Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
Study system: The helmeted manakin (Antilophia galeata) is a Neotropical bird endemic to the Cerrado biome in Central Brazil. It is the only dimorphic piprid species that inhabits a forest-like environment (gallery forests) surrounded by extensive savanna vegetation in the Cerrado biome, one of the most threatened biodiversity hotspots in the world. Contrary to most polygamous dichromatic manakins, this species apparently does not perform lekking courtship displays. Male ornamentation suggests it is under strong sexual selection favoring certain phenotypic characters. This would be a rare instance of loss of lekking behavior in the Pipridae family, and the species may represent a link between polygamous and monogamous mating systems.
Research: Lia is most interested in exploring questions regarding the social and genetic mating strategies (e.g., the influence of male sexual characters on female choice) of helmeted manakins during her PhD.
Fun Facts
1) The helmeted manakin joins mixed-species flocks of birds.
2) In ecotone regions, females may copulate and hybridize with the swallow-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia caudata). It is believed that the illegal trade of males of the helmeted manakin deprived females of a normal mating.
3) Although there are no evidences of lekking courtship displays, during breeding season males often perform fast and violent persecutions among each other.
2) In ecotone regions, females may copulate and hybridize with the swallow-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia caudata). It is believed that the illegal trade of males of the helmeted manakin deprived females of a normal mating.
3) Although there are no evidences of lekking courtship displays, during breeding season males often perform fast and violent persecutions among each other.
Study Species: Araripe Manakin (Antilophia bokermanni)
Who: Dr. Milene Garbim Gaiotti
Field Site: Araripe Plateau, Ceará State, Brazil
Lab Site: Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
Study system: The critically endangered Araripe manakin is found only in the humid forest on the slopes of the Araripe Plateau in the Ceará state of Brazil. Very little is known about the Araripe manakin, researchers have only recently been able to study the mating system of these manakins. More than one female nests in a male's "territory", however parental care is provided only by the female. Females lay 1 - 2 eggs and will make multiple nesting attempts in a single breeding system in the case of nest loss. Besides what was reported from the first observations of this species, Araripe manakins are not monogamous and different paternity was found for siblings from the same nest. Unlike many other manakin species no cooperative dance displays have been reported. Males are very vocal during breeding season which, after 5 years of study, is thought to be a solitary display that was previously thought of as a territory defense.
Research: During her PhD (2012-2016) Milene Garbim Gaiotti was the first researcher to study the reproductive system of Araripe manakins.
Who: Dr. Milene Garbim Gaiotti
Field Site: Araripe Plateau, Ceará State, Brazil
Lab Site: Universidade de Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
Study system: The critically endangered Araripe manakin is found only in the humid forest on the slopes of the Araripe Plateau in the Ceará state of Brazil. Very little is known about the Araripe manakin, researchers have only recently been able to study the mating system of these manakins. More than one female nests in a male's "territory", however parental care is provided only by the female. Females lay 1 - 2 eggs and will make multiple nesting attempts in a single breeding system in the case of nest loss. Besides what was reported from the first observations of this species, Araripe manakins are not monogamous and different paternity was found for siblings from the same nest. Unlike many other manakin species no cooperative dance displays have been reported. Males are very vocal during breeding season which, after 5 years of study, is thought to be a solitary display that was previously thought of as a territory defense.
Research: During her PhD (2012-2016) Milene Garbim Gaiotti was the first researcher to study the reproductive system of Araripe manakins.
Fun Facts
1) The Araripe manakin is the only member of the Pipridae family listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List.
Genus: Lepidothrix
Study Species: Blue-crowned manakin (Lepidothrix coronata)
Who: Carolina Ferreira
Field Site: Amazon basin, Brazil
Lab Site: LEGAL lab (www.evoamazon.net) at the Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, AM, Brazil
LABECA lab (http://labecainpa.wixsite.com/labeca) at the National Institute of Amazonian Research, Manaus, AM, Brazil
Study system: The blue-crowned manakin has one of the widest distributions of all manakins, occurring from Costa Rica to Bolivia. They are found in subtropical and tropical moist lowland forests. Males vary greatly in body plumage color throughout the species' distribution, color varying from olive green to black, while females are always green. As in other species of the family, males display in leks to attract females to mate. The display behavior is also variable among areas.
Research: Carolina Ferreira has been studying the evolution of body plumage color as a consequence of environmental and genetic effects. She and other lab members are interested in understanding phenotypic evolution (morphological and behavioral), habitat selection and geographical distribution.
Who: Carolina Ferreira
Field Site: Amazon basin, Brazil
Lab Site: LEGAL lab (www.evoamazon.net) at the Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, AM, Brazil
LABECA lab (http://labecainpa.wixsite.com/labeca) at the National Institute of Amazonian Research, Manaus, AM, Brazil
Study system: The blue-crowned manakin has one of the widest distributions of all manakins, occurring from Costa Rica to Bolivia. They are found in subtropical and tropical moist lowland forests. Males vary greatly in body plumage color throughout the species' distribution, color varying from olive green to black, while females are always green. As in other species of the family, males display in leks to attract females to mate. The display behavior is also variable among areas.
Research: Carolina Ferreira has been studying the evolution of body plumage color as a consequence of environmental and genetic effects. She and other lab members are interested in understanding phenotypic evolution (morphological and behavioral), habitat selection and geographical distribution.
Fun Facts
1) The blue-crowned Manakin males are green while young; they will change to adult color around two years of age when they finally mature sexually.
2) Each lek has a stage where males dance for females. Leks and stages are inherited and persist across many generations.
2) Each lek has a stage where males dance for females. Leks and stages are inherited and persist across many generations.
Genus: Manacus
Study Species: White-bearded Manakin (Manacus manacus)
Who: Dr. César Cestari
Field Site: Jureia Ecological Station, Iguape, Brazil
Lab Site: Unesp, Rio Claro, São Paulo State
Study system: White-bearded manakins are found in secondary forests of Amazon and Atlantic forest. Males are black, gray and white whereas females and juveniles are dull green. The display arena of males is characterized as an oval arena delimited by two or more saplings on the ground and varies from 0.15 to 0.9 m diameter. It is actively cleared from litter by the owner. Females are attracted to lek areas to copulate with competing males. As most of manakins, the species diet is predominantly frugivore (they also may eat insects).
Research: Dr. César Cestari has been studying the frugivorous diet of the white-bearded manakin as well as the species capacity to disperse seeds, the costs and benefits of display activity of males, and hierarchical interactions among males of white-bearded manakins in southeastern Brazil.
Who: Dr. César Cestari
Field Site: Jureia Ecological Station, Iguape, Brazil
Lab Site: Unesp, Rio Claro, São Paulo State
Study system: White-bearded manakins are found in secondary forests of Amazon and Atlantic forest. Males are black, gray and white whereas females and juveniles are dull green. The display arena of males is characterized as an oval arena delimited by two or more saplings on the ground and varies from 0.15 to 0.9 m diameter. It is actively cleared from litter by the owner. Females are attracted to lek areas to copulate with competing males. As most of manakins, the species diet is predominantly frugivore (they also may eat insects).
Research: Dr. César Cestari has been studying the frugivorous diet of the white-bearded manakin as well as the species capacity to disperse seeds, the costs and benefits of display activity of males, and hierarchical interactions among males of white-bearded manakins in southeastern Brazil.
Fun Facts
1) Historical records indicate that individual resident males may display on leks for up to 14 years and lek areas may persist for more than 40 years in the same area.
2) Males may a swallow a variety of fruits in areas surrounding their arenas. After that, they may regurgitate seeds with pulp adhered that attract ants to their arenas. Then, males may rub ants on their bodies (anting behavior) as a strategy to maintain the health of their plumages (anting may act as insecticide, bactericidal, and fungicide on birds). It helps to attract more females to copulate.
3) During the main breeding season, males may spend more than 90% of their daytime in display grounds competing with each other to attract and copulate with females.
4) Six-eight is the average number of resident males in a lek area of white-bearded manakin, however it may contain up to 70 individuals in certain areas.
5) Generally one or two high-ranking males in a lek area have the preferred traits (central arenas in the lek, velocity in maneuvers, and best plumage maintenance) that help them to copulate with the majority of females.
6) Evidences suggest that juvenile males of white-bearded manakins may enter in lek areas and dissimulate behavior of females to observe display activities of adult males and then increase their capacity to attract females during the adult phase.
2) Males may a swallow a variety of fruits in areas surrounding their arenas. After that, they may regurgitate seeds with pulp adhered that attract ants to their arenas. Then, males may rub ants on their bodies (anting behavior) as a strategy to maintain the health of their plumages (anting may act as insecticide, bactericidal, and fungicide on birds). It helps to attract more females to copulate.
3) During the main breeding season, males may spend more than 90% of their daytime in display grounds competing with each other to attract and copulate with females.
4) Six-eight is the average number of resident males in a lek area of white-bearded manakin, however it may contain up to 70 individuals in certain areas.
5) Generally one or two high-ranking males in a lek area have the preferred traits (central arenas in the lek, velocity in maneuvers, and best plumage maintenance) that help them to copulate with the majority of females.
6) Evidences suggest that juvenile males of white-bearded manakins may enter in lek areas and dissimulate behavior of females to observe display activities of adult males and then increase their capacity to attract females during the adult phase.
Species: Golden-collared manakin (Manacus vitellinus)
Who: Dr. Leonida Fusani, Dr. Barney A. Schlinger, Dr. Mathew Fuxjager, Ioana Chiver
Field site: Gamboa, Panama
Lab sites: University of Vienna & University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria; University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Wake Forest University, NC, USA
Study system: Golden-collared manakins are abundant in secondary forest from Western Panama to Northeastern Colombia. They form large leks that can count up to 40 males, each displaying in a small elliptical court delimited by a few saplings that are used for the acrobatic courtship displays. They are readily heard when displaying because of the loud wingsnaps they produce by rapidly clapping their wings over the back during the jump-snap display.
Research: Several labs focus on this species, mostly working collaboratively on research that includes neuroendocrinology, muscle physiology, behavioral ecology, ethology and comparative aesthetics.
Who: Dr. Leonida Fusani, Dr. Barney A. Schlinger, Dr. Mathew Fuxjager, Ioana Chiver
Field site: Gamboa, Panama
Lab sites: University of Vienna & University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria; University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Wake Forest University, NC, USA
Study system: Golden-collared manakins are abundant in secondary forest from Western Panama to Northeastern Colombia. They form large leks that can count up to 40 males, each displaying in a small elliptical court delimited by a few saplings that are used for the acrobatic courtship displays. They are readily heard when displaying because of the loud wingsnaps they produce by rapidly clapping their wings over the back during the jump-snap display.
Research: Several labs focus on this species, mostly working collaboratively on research that includes neuroendocrinology, muscle physiology, behavioral ecology, ethology and comparative aesthetics.
Fun Facts
1) Mature males have erectile feathers under their beak which form a bright golden ‘flag’ during display.
2) Males have hypertrophied leg and wing muscles that make them look like avian ‘body builders’.
3) A wing muscle specialized for producing snaps contracts faster than any other known vertebrate limb muscle.
4) Females prefer to mate with males that perform numerous fast courtship displays.
5) Golden-collared manakins perform their courtship display at courts that they maintain clear of debris (twigs and dead leaves). They can clear leaves as heavy as their own weight (~ 22 g) by flying with them!
2) Males have hypertrophied leg and wing muscles that make them look like avian ‘body builders’.
3) A wing muscle specialized for producing snaps contracts faster than any other known vertebrate limb muscle.
4) Females prefer to mate with males that perform numerous fast courtship displays.
5) Golden-collared manakins perform their courtship display at courts that they maintain clear of debris (twigs and dead leaves). They can clear leaves as heavy as their own weight (~ 22 g) by flying with them!
Genus: Pipra
Species: Wire-tailed manakin (Pipra filicauda)
Who: Dr. Brandt Ryder, Dr. Brent Horton, Dr. Ignacio Moore, Ben Vernasco, Dr. Matthew Fuxjager, Dr. Christopher Balakrishnan
Field sites: Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Yasuni National Park, Orellana Province, Ecuador
Lab sites: Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA; Millersville University, Millersville, PA, USA; Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA; Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA; Eastern Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
Study System: Wire-tailed manakins are broadly distributed throughout Northwestern South American where they prefer seasonally-flooded forest. wire-tailed manakins form stable male-male cooperative display coalitions to attract females. These cooperative coalitions form the basis for complex social networks that influence young males likelihood of obtaining a territory and older males mating success. Importantly, males that have the most display partners (and who are thus well connected in the social network) achieve the greatest reproductive success.
Research: Collaborators Dr. Brandt Ryder, Dr. Brent Horton, Dr. Ignacio Moore, Benjamin Vernasco, Dr. Matthew Fuxjager, and Dr. Christopher Balakrishnan combine intense field studies and advanced laboratory analyses to elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying male social behavior. More specifically, they aim to decipher the neuroendocrine and genetic mechanisms that underlie variation in social behavior phenotypes among males, and which may facilitate male-male cooperation in vertebrates. Their work strives to increase understanding of how hormone-mediated variation in male behavior influences social status and, ultimately, social network structure.
Dr. Brandt Ryder began studying wire-tailed manakins during his PhD in 2002 and continues his long-term research to date. Using this long-term data, Dr. Ryder asks questions about the physiological and genetic mechanisms that shape variation in male cooperative behavior and how that variation shapes social network dynamics.
Who: Dr. Brandt Ryder, Dr. Brent Horton, Dr. Ignacio Moore, Ben Vernasco, Dr. Matthew Fuxjager, Dr. Christopher Balakrishnan
Field sites: Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Yasuni National Park, Orellana Province, Ecuador
Lab sites: Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA; Millersville University, Millersville, PA, USA; Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA; Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA; Eastern Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
Study System: Wire-tailed manakins are broadly distributed throughout Northwestern South American where they prefer seasonally-flooded forest. wire-tailed manakins form stable male-male cooperative display coalitions to attract females. These cooperative coalitions form the basis for complex social networks that influence young males likelihood of obtaining a territory and older males mating success. Importantly, males that have the most display partners (and who are thus well connected in the social network) achieve the greatest reproductive success.
Research: Collaborators Dr. Brandt Ryder, Dr. Brent Horton, Dr. Ignacio Moore, Benjamin Vernasco, Dr. Matthew Fuxjager, and Dr. Christopher Balakrishnan combine intense field studies and advanced laboratory analyses to elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying male social behavior. More specifically, they aim to decipher the neuroendocrine and genetic mechanisms that underlie variation in social behavior phenotypes among males, and which may facilitate male-male cooperation in vertebrates. Their work strives to increase understanding of how hormone-mediated variation in male behavior influences social status and, ultimately, social network structure.
Dr. Brandt Ryder began studying wire-tailed manakins during his PhD in 2002 and continues his long-term research to date. Using this long-term data, Dr. Ryder asks questions about the physiological and genetic mechanisms that shape variation in male cooperative behavior and how that variation shapes social network dynamics.
Fun Facts
1) Wire-tailed manakins are extremely long lived for their body-size (about the weight of two US quarters), living on average 10+ years.
2) Wire-tailed manakins are one of only two species known to use their feathers in a tactile display for females.
3) Wire-tailed manakins form long-lasting “friendships” that form the basis of their social networks that are surprisingly similar to human social circles.
4) Male plumage color changes as they age; first year males are entirely green but males three years and older are red, yellow, and black. Females stay green their entire life.
5) Male social status among depends, in part, on whether they hold a display territory; territorial males are a higher class than ‘floater’ males without territories.
6) Male display territories are aggregated in the forest to form an ‘exploded lek’ system. Females attend these leks to watch males display and choose a mate.
7) Males develop long-term partnerships and perform cooperative courtship displays to impress females. These partnerships form the basis for a complex social network.
8) Females prefer to mate with territorial males that are highly connected in their social network (i.e., those with the most display partners).
9) Territorial males have relatively high testosterone levels, which is paradoxical because they typically are not aggressive toward other males. Indeed, they cooperate!
2) Wire-tailed manakins are one of only two species known to use their feathers in a tactile display for females.
3) Wire-tailed manakins form long-lasting “friendships” that form the basis of their social networks that are surprisingly similar to human social circles.
4) Male plumage color changes as they age; first year males are entirely green but males three years and older are red, yellow, and black. Females stay green their entire life.
5) Male social status among depends, in part, on whether they hold a display territory; territorial males are a higher class than ‘floater’ males without territories.
6) Male display territories are aggregated in the forest to form an ‘exploded lek’ system. Females attend these leks to watch males display and choose a mate.
7) Males develop long-term partnerships and perform cooperative courtship displays to impress females. These partnerships form the basis for a complex social network.
8) Females prefer to mate with territorial males that are highly connected in their social network (i.e., those with the most display partners).
9) Territorial males have relatively high testosterone levels, which is paradoxical because they typically are not aggressive toward other males. Indeed, they cooperate!
Multiple Genus Studies
Study Species:Red-capped manakin (Ceratopipra mentalis) primarily, but also blue-crowned manakin (Lepidothrix coronata), lance-tailed manakin (Chiroxiphia lanceolata), and golden-collared manakin (Manacus vitellinus).
Who: Dr. Corey Tarwater and Dan Albrecht-Mallinger
Field Site: 23 different sites across the Isthmus of Panama, ranging from the wet to dry lowland forests and from large intact forests to small fragmented habitats
Lab Site: University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
Research: Dr. Corey Tarwater and Dan Albrecht-Mallinger examine how different manakin species respond to variation in precipitation and fragmentation, two key global change environmental drivers. They examine whether precipitation and fragmentation alter individual traits, including morphological (e.g., wing length, bill length) and physiological traits (e.g., corticosterone), behaviors (e.g., display rates), and demography (e.g., survival, abundance, sex ratios). They began work across the Isthmus of Panama in 2016. This work will enable them to make predictions about how manakins will respond to changes in land use and rainfall and to understand how precipitation in particular influences lekking behaviors and lek structure.
Who: Dr. Corey Tarwater and Dan Albrecht-Mallinger
Field Site: 23 different sites across the Isthmus of Panama, ranging from the wet to dry lowland forests and from large intact forests to small fragmented habitats
Lab Site: University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
Research: Dr. Corey Tarwater and Dan Albrecht-Mallinger examine how different manakin species respond to variation in precipitation and fragmentation, two key global change environmental drivers. They examine whether precipitation and fragmentation alter individual traits, including morphological (e.g., wing length, bill length) and physiological traits (e.g., corticosterone), behaviors (e.g., display rates), and demography (e.g., survival, abundance, sex ratios). They began work across the Isthmus of Panama in 2016. This work will enable them to make predictions about how manakins will respond to changes in land use and rainfall and to understand how precipitation in particular influences lekking behaviors and lek structure.
Fun Facts
1) Red-capped manakin males perform a "moonwalk" where they slide up and down a branch and show off their nice yellow thighs to approaching females.
2) In places where we have multiple manakin species together, we often see them dancing and singing near each other, but with spatial segregation in where they dance, with some species liking to be higher up (red-caps), others at the ground (golden-collared), and others in the middle (lance-tailed).
3) The most elusive of the four species we study is the blue-crowned manakins. They are in darker forests, are not showy, and you often don't seem them until one is upon you.
2) In places where we have multiple manakin species together, we often see them dancing and singing near each other, but with spatial segregation in where they dance, with some species liking to be higher up (red-caps), others at the ground (golden-collared), and others in the middle (lance-tailed).
3) The most elusive of the four species we study is the blue-crowned manakins. They are in darker forests, are not showy, and you often don't seem them until one is upon you.
Manacus Hybrid Zone
Species: Hybridization and introgression between white-collared manakins (Manacus candei) and golden-collared manakins (Manacus vitellinus)
Who: Kira Long (University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA)
Dr. Sarah Kingston (Bowdoin College, Maine, USA)
Field site: Bocas del Toro, Panamá
Study system: Golden-collared manakins, white-collared manakins, and their hybrid are found in secondary growth forests along the edges of streams, and banana and cacao plantations throughout Bocas del Toro. This hybrid zone extends about 60 km from the Costa Rican border to Chiriqui Grande. While the golden-collared manakin has a dark, golden throat and the white-collared manakin has a white throat, their hybrid has a lighter, lemon colored throat. Males from all three groups extend their long throat feathers to make a “beard,” which they show off to females while jumping between saplings and making a loud popping sound with their wings.
Research: This system is currently being investigated to address questions on hybridization dynamics and avian speciation. Specifically, Dr. Sarah Kingston and collaborators use highly multilocus genotyping techniques to discern the underlying genomic architecture of a sexually selected plumage trait, the yellow throat patch, which is introgressing across a hybrid zone from Manacus vitellinus to M. candei. Populations in the hybrid zone along the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro province, Panama are of particular interest. Dr. Kingston works in the molecular lab with DNA and complete bioinformatic analyses on a high performance computing platform.
Who: Kira Long (University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA)
Dr. Sarah Kingston (Bowdoin College, Maine, USA)
Field site: Bocas del Toro, Panamá
Study system: Golden-collared manakins, white-collared manakins, and their hybrid are found in secondary growth forests along the edges of streams, and banana and cacao plantations throughout Bocas del Toro. This hybrid zone extends about 60 km from the Costa Rican border to Chiriqui Grande. While the golden-collared manakin has a dark, golden throat and the white-collared manakin has a white throat, their hybrid has a lighter, lemon colored throat. Males from all three groups extend their long throat feathers to make a “beard,” which they show off to females while jumping between saplings and making a loud popping sound with their wings.
Research: This system is currently being investigated to address questions on hybridization dynamics and avian speciation. Specifically, Dr. Sarah Kingston and collaborators use highly multilocus genotyping techniques to discern the underlying genomic architecture of a sexually selected plumage trait, the yellow throat patch, which is introgressing across a hybrid zone from Manacus vitellinus to M. candei. Populations in the hybrid zone along the Rio Changuinola in Bocas del Toro province, Panama are of particular interest. Dr. Kingston works in the molecular lab with DNA and complete bioinformatic analyses on a high performance computing platform.
Fun Facts
1) In Panama, Manakins are called Saltarines meaning “little dancer” or Guerrillero meaning “soldier” (specifically one who uses a machine gun).
2) Males clear the area under their saplings of leaves, making display “courts” on the forest floor. White-collared males are often “cleaner,” making large clear spaces around a meter big, while Golden-collared males clear smaller courts just around the base of their saplings.
3) Hybrid males tend to be more aggressive than the two parental species, shown to attack targets at higher rates, which may give them an edge in male-male competition on the lek.
4) Males use their wings during their mating display to make loud snapping noises. They have specialized morphology for this display.
2) Males clear the area under their saplings of leaves, making display “courts” on the forest floor. White-collared males are often “cleaner,” making large clear spaces around a meter big, while Golden-collared males clear smaller courts just around the base of their saplings.
3) Hybrid males tend to be more aggressive than the two parental species, shown to attack targets at higher rates, which may give them an edge in male-male competition on the lek.
4) Males use their wings during their mating display to make loud snapping noises. They have specialized morphology for this display.